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Flow of Ideas: articles - The Commodification of Education

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Education As Culture MachineEducation As Culture Machine
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Chandos Book Publishing

The Commodification of Education


Notes produced for students on the Education, Culture and Society (EDU3004) module, School of Education, University College Northampton, February 2003

Preface – These notes were originally produced for final year students on the EDU3004 module in February 2003. Our computer went down in late November 2006 and we lost about a third of our documents. However, I suspect that I lost this one prior to that, and I don’t recall writing it! Dave Hill sent me a load of documents yesterday that I might have lost in November, but I never bargained on getting this one back! So, thanks to Dave for the resurrection of this document. Although written originally just for students, I think it has independent value, and may be useful to others in the field of Marxist educational theory. The only additions made here are some links to online articles, and one sentence is section 2 (for further clarification), plus the previously Hill (2003) reference was brought up to date as Hill (2004). Otherwise, it is as I wrote it in February 2003

Glenn Rikowski, London, 18th February 2007


The Commodification of Education

Key Questions: What is a commodity? What does the commodification of education entail? What are the processes and practices of educational commodification? How are teachers implicated in these?

Introduction

The literature on the commodification of education and the nature of education commodities is sparse. What there is, basically concerns education markets. There is little on education as a commodity. Brock and Alexiadou (1999) wrote a book on Education as a Commodity, but there is little on education commodities in it. It’s mainly about education markets and competition in education. Thus: we have a peculiar situation, ‘education markets and missing products’. My own work has concentrated on the analysis of education as production and the nature of education commodities more than anyone else has.

The Commodity

Karl Marx is the greatest theorist on the ‘commodity’. Marx begins his first volume of Capital with the commodity, not capital. Marx first of draws our attention to the fact that:

“The wealth of those societies in which the capitalist mode of production prevails, presents itself as “an immense accumulation of commodities,” its unit being a single commodity. Our investigation must therefore begin with the analysis of a commodity” (Marx, 1867a, p.43).

For Marx, the analysis of capitalist society begins with the commodity as it is the ‘economic cell-form’ (Marx, 1867b, p.19) of that society. It is the most simple and basic form that can enlighten us about more complex phenomena springing from it, in the same way that human DNA provides significant data on the more concrete features of humans in general and particular individuals.

Marx defines the commodity in the following way:

“A commodity – as distinguished from labour power itself – is a material thing confronting man, a thing of a certain utility for him, in which a definite quantity of labour is fixed or materialised” (Marx, 1863, p.164 – original emphasis).

It was the condensed ‘general form of the product’ in capitalist society (ibid., p.148), the ‘most elementary form of bourgeois wealth’ (Marx, 1863, p.173), and hence the ‘formation and premise of capitalist production’ (Marx, 1866, p.1004). Commodities were also ‘the first result of the immediate process of capitalist production, its product’ (Marx, 1866, p.974). The commodity was the perfect starting point for Marx as it also incorporated the basic substance or social energy that powers capitalist society: value (Postone, 1996, pp.127-128). We create value when we produce commodities. It is incorporated in commodities, as a social substance, a form of social energy.

In capitalist society, commodities are bought and sold in markets. Thus: the argument is that today, education is being “commodified” – it is becoming constituted as value in the form of a range of commodities that are bought and sold in markets. This implies the creation of education ‘markets’ in which education commodities (products) are traded.


The Two Great Classes of Commodities

In Theories of Surplus Value – Part One (Marx, 1863a), Marx makes it clear that there are two classes or categories of commodities within the social universe of capital:

“The whole world of “commodities” can be divided into two great parts. First, labour power; second, commodities as distinct from labour power itself” (Marx, 1863, p.167).

There are then two classes of commodities:

* The ‘general class’ – commodities other than labour power, and

* The ‘class of one’ – and unique commodity, labour power.

The general class is external to us. Labour power is internal, part of our selves, or part of our personhoods.

If we are to understand the commodification of education then it is essential that we explore how both classes of commodities come to take on a reality in education. Richard Hatcher and Nico Hirtt (1999) acknowledge this. They talk of the business agenda for education (the production of labour power as human capital for businesses) and also the business agenda in education (the process of making profits out of education through setting up education businesses – the business takeover of education) (see also Hill, 2003).

1. LABOUR POWER

Labour power is the ‘capacity to labour’. Marx has a formal definition of labour power that is very interesting. This is that labour power is:

“…the aggregate of those mental and physical capabilities existing in a human being, which he exercises whenever he produces a use-value of any description” (Marx, 1867a, p.164).

On this definition, labour power has real social existence when it is transformed within the labour process into actual labour. It has a dual mode of social existence. On the one hand, labour power exists as a virtual entity (a capacity, a potential) within the labour market. On the other hand, in the capitalist labour process, labour power has real social existence; labourers call forth and activate an array of capacities, attributes and capabilities within their personhoods as they set about the process of labour. Hence:

“Labour itself, in its immediate being, in its living existence, cannot be directly conceived as a commodity, but only labour power, of which labour itself is the temporary manifestation” (Marx, 1863, p.171 – my emphasis).

Finally, the ‘mental capabilities’ include also the pertinent work and social attitudes and personality traits as constituents of labour power in action within the labour process. Recruitment studies show that employers search for good work attitudes above all else. Personality traits are also significant (see Rikowski, 2000b, and 2001a). Thus: the concept of labour power has here been refined to include these (in Rikowski, 2000b, and 2001a-b).


The Significance of Labour Power

1. It is the basis of the substance (value) of our social universe – the social universe of capital, in which we all live. It is the social energy that creates more social energy (value) than is required for its own maintenance and existence. The extra value (surplus value) is the basis of our civilisation in capitalist society, and also the basis of profit [remember the diagram we explored some weeks ago].

2. Value is created when labour power (potential) is transformed into labour (actuality) in the labour process, and is incorporated in commodities. These are sold in markets.

3. Thus: labour power is the single commodity that generates the social universe of capital, the whole form of life in and through which we exist.

4. Labour power is a social force flowing throughout our personhoods, as we use up many capacities (mental and physical) when we work. A fluid, flexible and living commodity.

5. In capitalist society, labour power takes the form of human capital: the human as a form of capital. Human capital theory is part of mainstream economics.

6. Human capital (i.e. labour power) is also at the heart of New Labour’s education policy, as it was for Conservative administrations (see Rikowski, 2001b). This is apparent from a reading of education reports. This is because the quality of labour power is crucial.


The Social Production of Labour Power and Teachers’ Power

There are processes of labour power production. Education and training are intimately involved in these.

1. Teachers and trainers are involved in producing the unique, living commodity that generates the substance (value) of our social universe.

2. This is the basis of teachers’ power in contemporary society. They are the ‘guardians of the fuel’ (labour power) that powers capitalist society, or ‘angels of the fuel dump’. This makes teachers and trainers, strategically, the most significant group of workers in society today.

3. Teachers are the workers that socially produce the ‘special commodity’, labour power – the impossible commodity – which is riddled with contradictions (Rikowski, 2001b).

4. The social drive to enhance the quality of labour power is infinite: there is no resting-place.


2. THE GENERAL CLASS OF COMMODITIES IN EDUCATION

The Business Takeover of Education – a vast range of education commodities. Some policies through which this is effected, include:

Education Action Zones (EAZs)

Outsourcing

Private Finance Initiative (PFI)

City Academies

Specialist Schools


Legislative Framework for the Profit Virus: Education Act 2002

Education Act 2002 became law on 24th July. It was passed on a third reading in the House of Lords at a late night sitting after being defeated twice previously in the Lords on the issue of schools being able to set up companies. The 2002 Act provides a series of measures that encourage further business takeovers of schools and LEA services. The 2002 Act sanctions the following:

* School governing bodies can constitute themselves as companies

* Once they have set themselves up as companies, schools can invest in other companies

* School companies can enter into deals with private sector operators

* School companies can be part of a ‘federation’ or chain of schools. Private companies can lead these federations. Last September, David Miliband (Schools Minister) clarified the situation regarding business leaders running federations: they do not need teaching qualifications

* Schools can also set up educational services and sell them to other schools

* The Secretary of State for Education has the power to form companies for involvement in any area of school life or LEA service

The Act also gives the private sector some of what it wanted on pay and conditions. Under the Act, around 1,000 schools are to be given freedom to vary the curriculum and change teachers’ pay and conditions. This derives from the new “earned autonomy” status that top performing schools can obtain.


Why is this happening?

Pressures from business

Building up indigenous education businesses as export earners

The Knowledge Economy (UK and EU policy)

The GATS – General Agreement on Trade in Services


Teachers and the Business Takeover of Schools

Problems for education businesses in developing UK education businesses:

* Teachers pay and conditions (control of these crucial for outsourcing)

* Classroom assistants (need these to gain efficiencies, lower costs)

* Campaigns against the GATS

* PFI companies have problems (e.g. Amey, W.S. Atkins), and the government is trying to gain some of the profits from re-financing PFI deals

* Professional ethos under threat, and trade unions (e.g. National Union of Teachers) are fighting PFI, outsourcing and GATS


Conclusion: Teachers are at the forefront of two key developments in society today. First, the enhancement of labour power quality – and labour power is the basis of our social universe. Secondly, the business takeover of schools (and colleges and universities), where teachers need to be ‘won over’ to this development.


References

Brock, C. & Alexiadou, N. (Eds.) (1999) Education as a Commodity, Saxmundham: John Catt Educational.

Hatcher, R. & Hirtt, N. (1999) The Business Agenda Behind Labour’s Education Policy, in: M. Allen, C. Benn, C. Chitty, M. Cole, R. Hatcher, N. Hirtt, & G. Rikowski, Business, Business, Business: New Labour’s Education Policy, London: Tufnell Press.

Hill, D. (2004) Educational Perversion and Global Neo-liberalism: A Marxist Critique, Cultural Logic: An Electronic Journal of Marxist Theory and Practice, Vol.7, at: http://clogic.eserver.org/2004/hill.html

McLaren, P. & Rikowski, G. (2001) Pedagogy for Revolution against Education for Capital: An E-Dialogue on Education in Capitalism Today, Cultural Logic: An Electronic Journal of Marxist Theory and Practice, Vol.4 No.1 (October), at: http://clogic.eserver.org/4-1/mclaren%26rikowski.html

Marx, K. (1863) [1969] Theories of Surplus Value – Part One, London: Lawrence & Wishart.

Marx, K. (1866) [1976] Results of the Immediate Process of Production, Addendum to ‘Capital’, Vol. 1, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Marx, K. (1867a) [1976] Capital: a critique of political economy – Volume 1, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Marx, K. (1867b) [1977] Preface to the First German Edition of Capital – Volume 1, London: Lawrence & Wishart.

Postone, M. (1996) Time, Labor, and Social Domination: A reinterpretation of Marx’s critical theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rikowski, G. (2000a) Messing with the Explosive Commodity: School Improvement, Educational Research and Labour-Power in the Era of Global Capitalism, A paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Cardiff University, 7–10 September, available from: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001610.htm

Rikowski, G. (2000b) That Other Great Class of Commodities: Repositioning Marxist Educational Theory, A paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Cardiff University, 7–10 September. Available from Education-line, University of Leeds, at: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001624.htm

Rikowski, G. (2001a) Education for Industry: A Complex Technicism, Journal of Education and Work, Vol.14 No.1, pp.27-49.

Rikowski, G. (2001b) The Battle in Seattle: Its Significance for Education, London: Tufnell Press.

Rikowski, G. (2001c) Six Points on Education for Human Capital, Employers’ Needs and Business in New Labour’s Green Paper, a paper prepared for an Open Meeting on ‘Promoting Comprehensive Education in the 21st Century’, Camden Town Hall, Judd Street, London, 24th March, at: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/documents/00001708.htm

Rikowski, G. (2002a) Globalisation and Education, A paper prepared for the House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs, Report on ‘Globalisation’, HL Paper 5-1, 18th November. On House of Lords CD-ROM. Online at: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001941.htm

Rikowski, G. (2002b) Schools: The Great GATS Buy, Information for Social Change, number 16, pp.51-55, available from: http://libr.org/isc/articles/16-G.Rikowski.html

Rikowski, G. (2002c) Fuel for the Living Fire: Labour-Power! In: A. Dinerstein & M. Neary (Eds.) The Labour Debate: An Investigation into the Theory and Reality of Capitalist Work, Aldershot: Ashgate.

Rikowski, G. (2002d) Education, Capital and the Transhuman, in: D. Hill, P. McLaren, M. Cole & G. Rikowski (Eds.) Marxism Against Postmodernism in Educational Theory, Lanham MD: Lexington Books.

Rikowski, G. (2003) The Profit Virus: The Business Takeover of Education, forthcoming in Mediactive: Ideas Knowledge Culture, Issue 1, April.


Glenn Rikowski
February 2003


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