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Chandos Book Publishing

Which philosophical school had more plausible solutions to the problem of freewill - the Stoics, or the Epicureans?

by Alexander Rikowski



The meaning of the phrase ‘Free will’ seems to mean that an individual has the power to make certain choices in life, regardless of everything that is external to him/her. Therefore the choices that we make using our own will are open to praise or blame. However, if it is decided that an individual had no choice on his/her actions then it would remain the case that certain decisions were forced upon them. They cannot be judged on those particular actions that they performed.

Aristotle seems to suggest that determinism, (which means that our choices in life have been pre determined), makes it impossible to tell the difference between voluntary and involuntary actions. Humans would only need to judge actions as voluntary for the purpose of law, and punishment. Epicurus 341 to 270 B.C. thought different. It appears he followed on from Democritus (ca.460-390 B.C.), who thought that everything consists of atoms. This includes the Gods, humans and even the soul. Also, that every change observed happened because of a change in the speed or direction of atoms. This would mean that determinism exists because everything that happens follows on from the behaviour of previous atoms, this includes human behaviour. However rather than atomism being committed to determinism, Epicurus seemed to think atomism can be used by individuals who do not fear death, in order to acquire our virtues, which enable us to have control over our choices and actions. Epicurus had two main reason to believe in free will. These were spontaneity and as I explained earlier, praising and blaming human actions. So he could not believe in complete determinism, since Epicurus said that:

"It would be better to follow the myths about the gods than to be a slave of the determinism of the physicists." (Epicurus, Letter to Menoecus, 134 – referenced in ‘Epicureanism and Free Will’, Dictionary of the History of Ideas)

He believed in the idea that a swerve in any atom could enable it to collide and change the paths of other atoms, which in turn allowed for the existence of free will because it was all unpredictable. Evidence of Lucretius tells us that Epicurus believed this. Epicurus realised the existence of man’s original thought and the pressure of external circumstances on the mind. Also, that there was a third happening, which he called “The generated”. It is not clear to us what exactly this is but he probably linked it up with his idea of the swerve in atoms. He also believed that for a man to question whether he was free was evidence that he was free, since that is proof that he can choose on argument over another. So it seems he thought we should realise we have no freedom to have freedom, he also thought we could influence the Gods. According to Epicurus atomism enables individuals not to fear the Gods. However, it seems that we need to face up to the fact that our lives are not under our control (see Irwin, 1999, p. 238).

Epicurus encouraged individuals to use their freedom to escape pain and aim for pleasure. Diogenes Laertius goes on to talk about fortune being only a kind of foundation in our lives that enables us to have the choice to act virtuously or not.

Other kind of philosophers continued to examine the idea of freewill after Epicurus among them were the Stoics. They believed that everything that happens follows on from previous happenings, since they are believers in their idea of natural law they appear to accept determinism which is an example of their belief in fate. They thought if arguing for determinism against the existence of freewill, then we would need to suggest the following statements. If our actions are victims of fate, then we cannot do anything about them. So whatever action we decide to take, that action would have been pre determined.

Stoics gave some consideration to the idea of a ‘Lazy argument’. Cicero said:

"…if we followed it we would do nothing at all in our lives." (Cicero, Fate 27-30)

An example of this could be if after writing this essay on freewill I went on to do an exam on the same subject and the outcome of the result is fated, then there is no point in me doing any more researching, since it will not change the result that is fated. The Stoics disagreed with this argument since they appear to believe that every outcome derives from the unchanging laws of nature - so whatever choices we make are fated. Alexander tells us that the Stoics thought ‘The universe is one’, and that nothing in the universe is without cause. Stoics also go on to talk about events that are ‘co fated’. For example if it is fated that I will write this essay, then it is also fated that I will research on the subject I am writing about. Aulus Gellius explains how Chrisippus gave an intelligent example of the situation. To shortly sum up his quote, he talks about how if you throw a stone off a steep slope, and it then carries on falling down after you let go this is because of its own nature to fall. He seems to be saying that the start of our causes are fated, but each persons own will and character direct which way our lives go. So to throw another stone in exactly the same way it would fall differently. Cicero also tells us that Chrisippus thought that if things happen by fate then they derive from proximate causes, which remain imperfect. Therefore because these causes are not in our power it does not mean that we do not have power in our desires. However if things happen by perfect causes, then we cannot cause them, hence our desires would not be in our power. So he seems to say that because fate exists this enables us to use our own will to have power over our desires, so fate enables us to have free will which in turn can results in freedom. So it seems as though the Stoics thought that previous causes allows assent to exist. For assent cannot derive from anything other than appearance as a proximate cause. So assent cannot happen without being stimulated by an external force. As Stobaeus said:

"The Stoics did not place perception in appearance alone. They made it depend on assent; for perception is assent to a perceptual appearance, and the assent is in accord with one’s impulse." (Stobaeus, Anthology ii.349.23=SVFii.74)

Chrisippus goes on to talk about an example of a spinning top. It initially starts off by an external force. Then the rest relies on its physical nature. So it appears the Stoics are saying we do not have to believe in total fate, we only need to realise causes.

After analysing and interpreting these two schools I shall now give my opinion on which one is a more plausible way of realising the existence of freewill. After reading Epicurus’s idea of the swerve in atoms. I cannot see any way to prove the existence of swervable atoms that enable the existence of freewill. He does not seem to say when previous swerves have happened, or how often atoms swerve. Perhaps Epicurus meant that every atomic swerve allows for the existence of actions that are voluntary. If this is true, surely if there are no atomic swerves in my lifetime, then I cannot be capable of free choice. It appears that the only actions that are open for praise or blame are the ones which remain out of character, because our actions have not derived from any aspect of our characters, but from an atom swerving. Therefore some individuals could interpret it in this way as follows, because Epicurus thought swerves happen without cause, we cannot cause them. If we do not have the freedom to choose when or how often it happens, therefore it seems we cannot have freedom. Lucretius however said:

"…still there is something within our breast that can fight against it and resist it…"(Lucretius, ii, 251-93 – Referenced in Irwin, 1999, p. 240)

So he seems to say we have more choice in the outcome. Epicurus also thought that a change could happen through voluntary movement in the mind. This appears to be more realistic than swerving atoms. Maybe he should have used this way of thinking more in his philosophy. Then it seems we would be able to make a free choice on our own or without the help of atoms. So I believe the Epicureans could have believed the atoms were an external pressure on the mind that we could be able to resist.

Stoics were of course philosophers that believed in the natural law. They were right to dismiss the lazy argument as a valid philosophy, for it is unproductive. However because my choices depend on things like my character or my past, am I making these choices from my own freewill? I know from Chrisippus examples of the stone and spin top he thought that, because of our own will we can decide which way our lives go after having fate start our causes. However it appears our own will and character are the results of fate, so even when are making what we think is a voluntary decision it could be down to fate. So it seems they thought we cannot have control over our causes in our lives, only our desires can be controlled. It would seem we can only control how we look at life. We can either rebel against fate and be unhappy or accept it and become virtuous. So the problem I see here is I know Chrissuipus thought fate enables us to have power over our desires, however why are my desires not fated as well?. Why is the power over my desires not fated? Also, why is it that every decision I make is not down to fate? If it is it would appear I have no freewill. Why should the Stoics decide what is fated and what is not?

Overall we have here the Epicureans who were against determinism and the Stoics who were believers in its existence. Both these schools show how external influences have a major effect on the mind. I believe because the Epicureans Atomic swerve idea is the harder philosophy to prove, it is more of a temptation, because often what we cannot prove is more enjoyable. It then appears to me more fascinating to think what we do not know. However, it seems their idea that voluntary acts can be out of character. Epicurus also seems rather vague about his own philosophy, which differs from the Stoics who seemed to be surer about their own beliefs. Therefore, I would opt for the Stoics philosophy as the more plausible one of the two. It also seems that through the Stoics philosophy we are able to realise our own character more. Also because we would be able to determine what our own character is through the laws of nature. It could be easier to decide what to do with our character, and it could help us realise how our character can actually be beneficial to our lives. It appears to me that this is the type of freewill the Stoics were trying to enable us to realise. Therefore, through following their laws of nature and noticing all the connections the Stoics philosophy appears to be more provable. I believe it is one thing to make a statement, but it is even harder to prove that statement is actually true.


Bibliography

Brunschwig, Jacques and Lloyd, Geoffrey E.R. (1996) A guide to Greek thought: major figures and trends, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Massuchusetts, USA

Cicero, Fate 27-30

Epicureanism and Free Will, Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Available at: http://extext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-15

Epicurus, Letter to Menoecus, 134

Galen Strawson: Free Will – The Determinism and Freedom Philosophy website – see http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/dfwVariousStrawsonG.html

Gottfried Seebass: the significance of free will – The Determinism and Freedom Philosophy Website. See – http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/dfwVariousSeebass.html

Inwood, Brian and Gerson, L.P. (1997) (2nd ed.) Hellenistic Philosophy Introductory Readings, Hackett Publishing, USA

Irwin, Terence (edited) (1999) Classical Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Stobaeus, Anthology ii. 349.23=SVFii.74

Alexander Rikowski, London, 26th June 2005
Paper prepared for Hellenistic Philosophy course, Birkbeck College, University of London

© Copyright, June 2005


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